"It's Molecular, my dear Watson"

As the third most abundant element in the Universe, you would think finding two of these atoms joined together wouldn’t exactly be Astronomy’s version of a detective mystery. However, up until now definitive evidence of molecular oxygen, a necessary molecule for life, has eluded scientists. This month the solar system’s best private investigators will publish their results into exactly where it’s been hiding.

Earth’s own atmosphere has been pulling the wool over scientist’s eyes for years. Elements in space are detected using wavelength spectra, and specific bright spots seen on these spectra are clues to the identity of each element. The Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 21% oxygen. Unfortunately this was found to be absorbing any evidence of those wavelengths specific to oxygen. Only recent advances in technology have allowed us to measure spectra from space, without interference.  

In theory oxygen should only be 100 000 times less abundant than hydrogen. However, the Herschel Space Observatory scientists have been repeatedly baffled to find, experimentally, it is 10 000 000 times less abundant. However, as Sherlock Holmes once said “It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has all the data.” So where is all the oxygen?

The new evidence suggests the culprit is water ice. Oxygen atoms are disguising themselves as water ice by clinging to dust grains in freezing cold parts of the universe. However, the Orion Nebula, has caused their mask to fall. The Orion Nebula, is the nearest massive star forming region to Earth. Here newborn stars radiate heat, which is able to evaporate the ice, allowing molecular oxygen to form and leaving it exposed to discovery.

"Theory suggests we should find lots of oxygen atoms locked in molecular oxygen (O₂), but previous searches kept falling short of such a large amount," comments Paul Goldsmith from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the US. Goldsmith is the NASA Herschel Project Scientist "With these new data, we finally have a strong hint at where cosmic oxygen might be hiding," he adds.

The mystery of the missing molecule may have been solved for now, but the Herschel observations of extraordinary sources project has many more riddles to help unravel yet.

Ref: P. Goldsmith, R. Liseau, et al., "Herschel measurements of molecular oxygen in Orion", Astrophysical Journal, in press.

Bad news travels fast. Well, two feet a day at least.

The Adirondacks Mountains in NY are somewhere most people would go to relax. Even the tourist website invites you to "slow down this summer and camp out under a canopy of stars." Although you may wake up with your tent far from where you pitched it. The Adirondacks, for the past month and a half have been experiencing a landslide. It's moving up to 2 ft each day, fairly fast for an area where most move only a few inches. Although it's excuricatingly slow for the owners of the (now condemned) house, teetering at the edge.

A house teetering at the edge of the slope

The whole side of the hill, about 82 acres of forest, boulders, house foundations and earth, is being dragged down the sides of Porter mountain after this year's heavy snow and rain caused a build up of groundwater. The groundwater seeped into the 12,000 year old glacial till and sands, and the increased water pressure reduced the overall strength of the hillside, and started the movement. The USGS states that 80% of NY is not susceptible to landslides, but if there's a steep slope, like the high peak of Porter Mountain, then it's very easy for the top loose sediment layer to slip, like treacle, down the slope. 

Porter Mountain seen from a distance, the steep slopes causing the landslide are visible

With one house already destroyed and several others moving perilously close to the steep drop at the edge of the scarp, some residents have enlisted house movers to pick up their entire houses and park them at safer locations on the mountain flanks. Although, they have yet to drill a borehole in any property which can find stable ground. With each rainstorm the slide moves faster and the residents are now praying for summer, when the trees will take up more water and hopefully slow the pace. 

Andrew Kozlowski , a geologist for New York, states that there is no way of knowing how long the slide will last for, "It could stop in a few weeks. Or it could keep moving for three months. Or three years. We just can't tell. It has to reach a new equilibrium." There was no warning of the Adirondacks slide and it's possible there are many other areas which could landslide in the mountain range. The last big slide in New York occured in 1993 about 150 miles south west of the current slide.  Slow moving landslides are common in America, and the USGS is also monitoring one in North Salt Lake City, Utah which has been sliding for twelve years. Despite causing up to $2 billion worth of damage in the US alone, they are still one of the least studied natural disasters. 

Landslides turn catastrophic when they turn suddenly into mud of debris flows which travel extremely fast and can cause billions of dollars worth of destruction and high death tolls. If there's another heavy rainstorm it's possible the landslide could take the house right over the edge or worse. State Geologists, however, remain confidant they are well versed in monitoring the speeds of landslides and most catastrophic movement is preceeded by gradual acceleration which can be measured. There is also now a proposal to map the area using LIDAR (a way of mapping the topography beneath the forest) to determine if they can find any areas which are also susceptible. 

"You can argue with the Geologist, but not with the rocks!"

On 28^th June 2011  Portcullis House welcomed an odd looking bunch, as hundreds of scientists descended for the annual Parliamentary Links Day. Run by The Royal Society for Chemistry it’s success, I suspect, is due to the insistent nature of Stephen Benn (son of Tony), who chairs the event. Delegates included fellows from several scientific societies, various MP’s and other politically minded people eager to hear presentations on this year’s theme of Global Challenges.

Rt Hon John Bercow, Speaker of the House, introduced the event with an impression of Tony Benn (www.rsc.org)

The science presenters focused on a specific Global Challenge related to their subject. Dr Jim Wild echoed Andrew Miller MP that “ Astronomy is the most inspirational subject”. Then joked he’d incite mass panic, as he explained solar flares could hit during the opening ceremony of the 2012 Olympics. “At the centre of climate change is Biology,” we were told by Dr Mark Downs, as he covered the various biological topics, from international trade to waste management, which can be considered Global Challenges. We were then entertained by Dr Brian Lovell OBE, President of the Geological Society, with his photo albums of past field trips. These acted as evidence that carbon capture and storage is effectively reducing carbon in the atmosphere. Interestingly, on a day devoted to establishing links, there was little mention about collaborations between the disciplines.

Brian Lovell explains how analysis of rocks led to his deep concern about the buildup of carbon dioxide and its consequences for humans and their planet. (youtube)

In between the scientists, the politicians explained ways science and policy could work together to tackle these Global Challenges. Dr Julian Huppert MP, explained why “basing decisions on evidence”, is a scientific reflex which should be run out across parliament. Whilst Chi Onwurah MP insisted only partnerships between the public and private sectors will make the most of innovative research, and a difference to the global challenges we face. It was continually noted that in order to fix global issues, we need to collaborate around the globe. Rt Hon David Willetts MP made a very sensible point, “we now we have a scientific advisor in every political department”. Since politicians are given the best access to foreign departments, the Haldene Principle makes it hard for these advisors to forge international links into joint scientific research. Although, he couldn’t answer my question on whether or not this might be reformed, as he had to run off, probably to prepare for that evening’s Newsnight.

Whilst all of the speakers agreed on the need to enthuse the “new generation of scientists”, only Prof. Lorna Casselton mentioned better science communication. The sudden rise to fame of the Rock Star Physicist, Dr Brian Cox OBE is an example of how packaging a scientific message in the right way can, and will, enthuse a classroom filled with potential Pasteur’s and Darwin’s. Examples from today, like Bryan Lovell and Imran Khan proved that being educated in the methods and tricks of science communication can make science far easier to understand and much more accessible to both new generations and decision makers.

Prof Brian Cox OBE- Former D:Ream keyboardist turned avid Science Communicator

Despite the scientists ignoring interdisciplinary links and placing their own subjects at the heart of the challenges faced, Parliamentary Links Day 2011 could be considered a great success. It brought less well-known actions of groups such as CASE, and research of less well discussed topics, such as weather models, to the forefront of discussion. However, perhaps next year the topic of communicating science could be the theme of the Day.

Congratulations NASA, it's a ... Rover?

This week the Mars Science Laboratory completed the first part of it's mission, flying from its birthplace in California to it's launch-pad in Florida. Here it will take it's first steps on a year long flight to Mars. NASA's latest prodigy arrived late on Wednesday night, weighing 7500 pounds and with all 3 of it's cameras, 4 spectrometers and 5 other sensors perfectly intact. 

Mars Rover Curiosity, Left Side View (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

The last expedition to Mars proved a huge success, mostly down to the Spirit Rover. Spirit's heroic contribution to the exploration of Mars is to be commemorated in a service later this year, after Nasa chose to pull the plug on the ailing old timer on 24th May 2011. Spirit beautifully surpassed all expectations by running 5 3/4 years longer than her originally intended 90 sol (1 sol = 24hr 37 minutes) expedition. She even transmitted data and collected samples despite having to traverse backwards, dragging an injured front wheel in her wake! 

 A video from NASA reflecting on Spirit's Triumphs on Mars 

MSL's rover Curiosity is bigger, heavier and can travel further than Spirit and her brother Opportunity. Although Curiosity will still retain many of their more successful features she will also have equipment to gather samples of rock and soil and be able to distribute them to onboard analaytical instruments. And, unlike previous rovers, Curiosity is powered by the radioactive decay of plutonium. This means she can collect data for a full year, where previous, solar powered rovers, went into hibernation during winter months.

It's intended launch later this year, is a shimmering star on the horizon for Mars scientists, representing the first leap into a new decade of space exploration. The mission goal is to determine whether the landing site and surrounding areas have ever (or still can) support life. It also aims to prepare for human exploration by demonstrating the ability to land a very large and heavy rover, very precisely.

Curiosity's Science Instruments showing the 4 spectrometers and 3 cameras on board.

The Spacecraft has been designed to steer itself into landing in a similar series of moves that the astronauts landing a rocket would use, then slowly lower the rover into place by tether. This has made several, previously inaccessible, landing sites available by increasing the accuracy of landing by 5 times. However, the landing could still be anywhere within an area of 20 kilometers (see ellipse in image below). 

Image of Gale Crater showing 20km wide possible landing ellipse and layered mound in centre (NASA/JPL image)

The landing site will be chosen later this week by a crack team of scientists, choosing a spot which fulfills these criteria:

 i) Evidence that the area may once have, or still can, support life

 ii)Meeting the safety requirements and engineering problems faced by landing a rover

iii) Allow the rover to operate and perform its duties immeadiately

Out of four options the Gale Crater was today tipped by Nature to be favourite. The 3.5 billion year old crater is named after Walter Frederick Gale, an australian banker who became a renowned astronomer after discovering several comets and describing the canals on Mars. The crater has long been topic of discussion due to the layered mound in the centre. Suspected to be layered clay minerals with alternating layers of sulfur and oxygen-bearing minerals above, this peak could have formed due to periodic flooding and be protecting complex organic minerals indicative of microbial life. There are also several channels carved into the sides of the mound by water erosion which would provide ideal cross-sections for the rover to analyse. The Gale Crater is competing against Eberswalde Crater and Holden Crater who's river delta sediments may hide organic lakebed deposits. Whilst Mawrth Vallis, the mineralogists favourite as it contains some of the oldest and most complex rock sequences on Mars, appears to have come in last in a site selection workshop last month.

Layers visible in Gale Crater- Image taken by HiRise (NASA/JPL image library)

NASA is expected to make the decision next Friday and announce which landing site has won the week after, the rover will then remain incubated until it's launch from the Kennedy Space Centre at the end of the year. Congratulations NASA!

Cold shoulder for Global Warming

Tim Oates, the government advisor in charge of overhauling the national curriculum, has come under fire for his recent proposals to drop climate change from the syllabus for 5-16yr olds.

In a Guardian interview Oates called for schools 'to get back to the science in science'. Oates has a point, core subjects like evolution, magnetism and chemical formulae are vital information for children to learn and should always be part of the curriculum. However, surely the point of teaching is to enthuse children in a subject so that they can better learn and understand it. In my opinion, and one shared 100 years ago by Thomas Huxley in his Science in Education journals, the biggest change Oates could make is to make science lessons more practical. Repetition and constant memorization will never instill a fervor to learn, whereas the excitement and fun from performing experiments can make any concept easier to understand. Informal science education, such as trips to museums, should also have more emphasis.

How better to do that than show how science is constantly advancing and new, exciting discoveries are being made all the time? Oates says "we're not taking it back 100 years" by removing climate change, but instead getting back to grass roots science. By removing  science issues and their  relevance you are moving children away from learning about all current news. Climate change covers politics, geography and science. It's a hotly contested topic which has all major newspapers, websites and television channels introducing separate environmental sections. Without it being taught in school a child will be far less equipped to make their own decisions about relevant issues and debates. Other debates in the news, including women's equality, abortion and the war on terror are all taught about in schools, through both history and current events. In 2007 'Cultural Understanding of Science' was added to the curriculum for 11-14 year olds. Science should follow the same policy as other major topics in todays society, with both core theories being covered and then teachers making the decision on which current topics are the most relevant to the children and their immediate culture. 

In America, children can choose 3 science subject and Earth Science (including Climate Change) is quickly becoming the most popular. This shows that children can take an active interest in our planet and the environment. Reforming science education is necessary. especially when science is taught as a single subject until GCSE and without, for some pupils, practical lessons until you reach secondary school. However, removing the current most interesting topics in science, and not educating future generations about how to look after our planet is not the way forward. 

There's no coincidence tsunami is a Japanese word.

Only a year ago Aon Bentham, an insurance company,  held a meeting discussing which places would be hit next with major natural disasters. They identified Indonesia, Chile and Japan as locations where an 8.0Mw quakes may hit next. Does this mean that Seismologists could have done more to predict the Japanese earthquake?

The March 11th 2011 earthquake which hit Honshu, Japan and measured at 8.9 Mw was preceded by a series of large foreshocks over the previous two days, beginning on March 9th with an earthquake of magnitude 7.2, occuring about 40 km from where Friday's earthquake hit. A further 3 earthquakes greater than magnitude 6 occured that same day. Knowing this I can't help but ask why was more prediction not implemented?

Information from the Japanese Meteorological Society about large earthquakes from the day before

Professor Peter Sammonds a seismologist at the Benfield Hazards Centre in London stated that "the problem with foreshocks is you never know if it is a foreshock or not until the larger quake comes". However, there are calculations and methods to predict earthquakes and after the 2004 Sumatran earthquake there was a paper published about the stress transfer along the fault line causing further ruptures, which correctly predicted a second major earthquake four months later. Sammonds admits that "the calculation is within our grasp, we just don't have the time to implement it within two days". Since the Sumatran earthquake occured in the same splay-fault system could there have been predictions and better defences built since 2004? In truth, despite being linked they are too far away for any of the stress transfer from the 2004 earthquake to have affected the section of fault line alongside Japan. 

Tsunami Wave heights as predicted by NOAA

As it is the Japanese people live with an ever-present expectation of natural disaster; floods, hurricanes, fires, and most of all earthquakes and the massive waves they can generate. Looking at the USGS damage predictions we see the damage itself is quite small, however they didn't predict the effect of the tsunami, and despite the buildings resisting the earthquake itself the tsunami  swept away all in it's path. Even if the major quake wasn't predicted from the foreshocks, you'd think in light of the knowledge that these thrust faults move under sea plates and often cause tsunamis, the Japanese would have been more inclined to evacuate the coastal areas. The Japanese have in fact built concrete walls along the coast to act as tsunami defence barriers and on Friday issued a warning 10 minutes before the wave struck to allow people time to evacuate to higher ground. There is evidence that these tsunami barriers and warning systems did work to some extent but it is still too early to say how effectve the warning system was.

Above The Tsunami covering the coast and breaking it's defences. Below: The Damage caused

Despite the damage and ongoing problems (like the melting nuclear reactors) Japan can't relax. This isn't the 'Big One' they've been waiting from, far from it. The most devastating earthquake would occur along the Nankai fault plane and would effect Tokyo massively. Since this is a completely seperate system the probablity of a quake occuring there has not changed and Japan may be in for much more turmoil in the future.

' No, we cannot give the job to this woman. She is too young and tender, the strain of the field work would be too much for her.' - Anonymous, 1990

On the final day of the week in which we heralded International Women's Day I felt this would be the perfect time to praise the women in science who are so often forgotten and to relive their, often amazing, stories. While many female geologists now are well known, and many geological societies worldwide are presided over by women (last year the president of the GSL was Lynne Frostick, a noted sedimentologist), there are many more who are now unable to tell their own stories.

In Victorian Britain the very idea of women doing serious science (except botany) was widely ridiculed, and women often worked as 'assistants' and family members, forgoing all acknowledgement of their work in order to further science for the greater good. Although Etheldred Bennett is heralded as the first woman in geology in the UK Mary Anning is probably England's best known woman in geology. The fossil hunter who followed her father up and down the clffs of Lyme Regis and discovered the Ichthyosaur struggled for years to have her discoveries  recognised as her own. 

Mary Anning in the field with her dog

Since she didn't keep a diary and was unable to publish any scientific papers there is very little known about the life of Mary Anning, unlike the male geologists of her time who couldn't wait to pen their biographies. When in 1824, she visited the Geological Society of London a noble woman Lady Harriet Sivester expressed complete disbelief at the gumption of this young, underprivileged and uneducated girl; ". . . the extraordinary thing in this young woman is that she has made herself so thoroughly acquainted with the science that the moment she finds any bones she knows to what tribe they belong. It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour - that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, ". At least Lady Silvester appreciated that Miss Anning had worked hard for her knowledge.

In the US another hard working, and extremely determined young girl carved her place as the First Lady of Geology. Florence Bascom (July 14, 1862 – June 18, 1945) had to enrol in her father's college to gain a degree and was greatly influenced by her father’s friend, a geology professor at Ohio State University, Bascom became increasingly interested in geology and was eventually awarded the opportunity to study for a PhD. However, as the photo below shows field gear may have changed since the 1800's but the determination of women to even the gender gap in science still remains.  Bascom was only allowed to gain her PhD on the condition she sit behind a screen during classes so as not to disrupt male students (yes...really..!) 

Florence Bascom in the field with a compass- a different Geological fashion to now!

She was the first woman to be hired by the USGS and was eventually awarded the honor of four stars in the first edition of American Men of Science, an accolade which showed the men in her field at least accepted her as one of their own. An expert in mineralogy and petrography (and the youngest daughter of a suffragette) her legacy was to build a women's own college and train several women to become future geologists. She influenced most of the women geologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some of whom debated and argued with discoveries she had personally taught them (debates she in fact welcomed and results she championed). The college originally included geology as part of the natural sciences and so Bascom initially worked out of a storage area in the newly established sciences building, but after two years she had gathered a collection of minerals, rocks, and fossils worthy of their own building and eventually founded the school’s department of geology. Her work and contribution to geology is still being awarded and they named a crater on Venus after her.

Both of these women geologists were incredibly successful when being a woman was virtually worse than being a pet, but my all time favourite story of women in science is not that of a geologist but a woman ahead of her time even in an unrelated field. It shows the brilliant sense of humour needed to survive in a world where your determination and drive will only get you as far as that glass ceiling. Anna Barbauld was the brilliant young assistant to Joseph Priestley FRS, the great 18th-century chemist (who discovered oxygen and it's necessity to life). She pioneered animal rights in laboratories after noting the distress of mice as they were steadily deprived of air in glass vacuum jars. Accordingly, she wrote a poem in the voice of one of Priestley's laboratory mice and stuck it in the bars of the mouse's cage for Priestley to find the next morning. She entitled it: "The Mouse's Petition to Dr Priestley, Found in the Trap where he had been Confined all Night".

For here forlorn and sad I sit,

Within the wiry Grate, 

And tremble at the approaching Morn 

Which brings impending fate…

The cheerful light, the Vital Air, 

Are blessings widely given; 

Let Nature's commoners enjoy 

The common gifts of Heaven.

The well-taught philosophic mind 

To all Compassion gives; 

Casts round the world an Equal eye, 

And feels for all that lives.

Barbauld's penchant for study worried her mother who expected her to "end up a spinster because of her intellectualism..." and with it still a common legend that boys don't like smart women let's hope that's not the fate even for today's women in science.